Which industry was responsible for the European colonization of Southeast Asia?
We’ve all heard of the Vietnam War. And some of us have heard that the French and British were in Southeast Asia as colonizers before the war. But do you know when and why Europeans got interested in Southeast Asia in the first place?
Last season on Not Trivial, one episode was dedicated to how the Portuguese opened up Japan to the west through trade and also religion. But the connection of the East and West is a layered and storied relationship. There is the infamous Silk Road, of course. And that’s a relationship based on trade. Today’s episode is about Southeast Asia, which is a little bit off the Silk Road’s path. So let’s start by learning a bit more about the cultures of Southeast Asia - and see why Europeans were so intrigued.
The geographical region of Southeast Asia extends from Burma in the west to Indonesia in the south, including the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Timor-Leste, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand. Only one country is land-locked (Laos) and the rest have extensive access to the seas in the region: the Andaman Sea, the Gulf of Thailand, the Java Sea, the Banda Sea, and the South China Sea.
Culturally, the region is known for its rice-based cuisine, a long history of dance and puppetry, and diverse metalworking for both weaponry and musical instruments. Rice paddy agriculture has existed in the region for millenia due to the climate and propensity for monsoon weather. What’s the difference between a monsoon and other storms? A monsoon is a seasonal reversing wind, which brings changes in precipitation with it. Technically, monsoons occur everywhere in the world; from West Africa to North America. But we tend to associate the word monsoon with Southeast Asia.
South Asia, so all the countries I previously mentioned plus Bangladesh, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, experience the same weather pattern when it comes to the monsoon. It begins in May over the Bay of Bengal, reversing its winds from there out towards the South China Sea. Monsoons bring sudden and heavy rainfall and are rarely fully predictable. They are erratic in nature. But rice? Rice loves a flood. It’s capable of growing very well in tropical regions due to exactly the erratic nature of this type of weather.
So far, Europeans may not be so interested. Rice is but a carb, just as wheat or barley was Europe’s carb. But that’s not all that grows in the region. What else takes full advantage of the tropical environment, adds flavor to dishes, and can often go for high prices at market? Spice. Spices like ginger, pepper, nutmeg, clove, cinnamon and turmeric. There are many others, but this is what was of great interest to Europe. These spices were used in antiquity, finding their way into the Near East before the beginning of Christianity. Many of the European kingdoms and empires of late antiquity and the early modern era thought the spices were from the Arab world.
And we know European languages attained the words for traded materials from their Arabic names. But the products themselves? They were from Southeast Asia and India. And the maritime aspect of its trade was dominated by Indonesian sailors, who brought it to the empires in India and Persia, who then traded it onward to East Africa, as well as the Greeks and Romans. We’re reaching back into the year 1500 BC, my friends. This is an old trade route, an ancient tradition.
What exactly were folks in Europe using these spices for? Well, cinnamon was often used as a gift fit only for monarchs or deities. The temple of Apollo at Miletus records a transcription of gifts of cinnamon and cassia. In ancient Egypt, cinnamon was used to embalm mummies. It was used as an aromatic for burning also. The first Greek reference to cinnamon is found in a poem by Sappho in the 7th century BC. Aristotle was one of many authors who named Arabia as the source of cinnamon. But in fact the Arab traders simply kept its true source a secret, in order to preserve their trade routes.
This was the case all the way through the Middle Ages. The Western world did not know exactly where it came from. Even Marco Polo avoided naming the source of a spice like cinnamon. And he was part of the Republic of Venice. The Venetians were the first Europeans who were involved in the spice trade and held a monopoly on it for quite some time. We’ll come back to Venice in a bit… Cinnamon was an expensive spice and a coveted commodity amongst the wealthy and noble families of Europe.
Other spices, like ginger, were well-known across Asia, including China. It was always used as an edible part of a meal and had a reputation as being a health remedy from its beginning. The Romans did know of it, but only the wealthy could afford it. It was seen as an herbal prescription, especially for the kidneys. In 14th century England, a pound of ginger cost as much as one sheep.
Black pepper is one of the most widespread spices and has been used in Indian cooking since at least 2000 BC. Once it became a traded property, it became known as “black gold”. It was even a form of currency for some traders. Its massive popularity didn’t decline until the New World was discovered and the chili pepper became more widespread - due to being much easier to grow in southern Europe. Europeans were using pepper as often as they could, enhancing their meals.
A spice like nutmeg, however, was a lesser known entity for a long time. Its use didn’t spread beyond eastern Indonesia until the 6th century AD, and that was only to India. From there, it spread in usage to Constantinople. And yes, the Arab traders eventually discovered where the source of nutmeg was - the Banda islands - by the 13th century, but again, kept the location secret for their financial benefit. We’ll come back to the Banda islands later on…
Many other spices, like clove and turmeric, were part of this Maritime Silk Road both developed by and monopolized by Indonesians. This sea-based trade route began in the 2nd century BC and flourished until the 15th century AD. The sailors had large, long-distance ships built specifically for the purpose of traversing the open waters between Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and East Africa. The ships they made were wooden, with their planks sewn or tied together with flexible branches of plants like willow trees. This was a successful manner of shipbuilding before metalworking became more common.
Actually, the trade route was formatted on top of networks that already existed - for jade. The luminous green stone has been a mainstay in Asian culture for thousands of years. It was discovered in Taiwan in 2000 BC and immediately was mined and used in trade to build wealth. The Philippines was also a mandatory stop along the jade trade route. And this was because indigenous Filipinos started processing the raw jade as it came from Taiwan and was crafted into beautiful pieces of jewelry or ornamentation for religious rituals.
To say that the natives of Southeast Asia were prone to understand and benefit from trade is a vast understatement. Spice was highly desired, riches were gained along the route, and it seems only logical that the folks at the end of the route (Europe) would end up wanting to know the route’s origin. And of course, the greater the wealth gained from trade, the easier it became for kingdoms and empires to consolidate wealth and raise armies - or in this case, navies.
We have to discuss the Republic of Venice for a short bit, to understand its influence in Europe and its impact on the spice trade. Venice was a formidable power player. As early as the 11th century, Venice was boosting its commercial expansion by creating exclusive privileges with both the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire. This mix of diplomacy and commerce is what Venice is known for. And as a republic, it was effectively thumbing its nose at the surrounding empires. Empires who chafed at Venice’s full control over trade routes.
Other European entities were wanting to expand themselves commercially by the 16th and 17th centuries. The English, specifically Queen Elizabeth I, were raiding Spanish galleons in the Atlantic. The Spanish were sailing to the New World and establishing colonies. The Portuguese were attempting to circumnavigate Africa. And why? Because in 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottomans. They took sole control of the trade routes through Turkey and charged hefty taxes on merchandise bound for the west. Again, we have the economic dependency causing friction, but also the religious entity of the Ottomans causing offense.
If the Ottomans were both expansionist and non-Christian, the West of Europe could not allow it to overwhelm them. For the sake of their own pocketbooks and the desired dominance of Christianity, the West started building navies. Big, burly navies who would fight dirty if they had to. In 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca for Portugal. Malacca was the center of Asian trade at the time, so this was a major event that turned the spice trade on its head. Because only a year later, the Portuguese discovered the secret location of what were called the “Spice Islands”.
The Maluku Islands are an archipelago in the eastern part of Indonesia. Specific spices like nutmeg, mace, and clove were exclusively found here. These islands are located in the Banda Sea, so here again are the Banda islands among others in the archipelago. European colonial powers were now privy to the secrets. But Arab traders weren’t giving up without a fight. It took decades for the Portuguese to conquer strategic bases in the Persian Gulf and also in East Africa. The Spanish organized the expedition of Christopher Columbus as a response to the Portuguese gaining such control of the region.
And we all know how that went… Actually though, that westward voyage along with subsequent journeys by Balboa and Magellan would open up the entire globe to Europe and broaden the trade route possibilities for Europe.
The Portuguese in Asia though were prolific. They weren’t only in Malacca, they were in Sumatra (Indonesia), Ayutthaya (Thailand), Pegu (Burma), and Da Nang (Vietnam) to name only a few. Of course, the Portuguese expanded on their lucrative trade by exporting slaves from Africa, this started in 1541. But this would over-extend their empire and they became vulnerable to other European powers over time. By the time of the late 16th century, it was the French, English, and Dutch who would send rival expeditions into Asia. By 1642, the Portuguese were driven out of the Gold Coast in Africa by the Dutch. This was a stronghold of the slave trade, which now opened itself up to the Dutch, but also the English.
Why the Dutch and English at the same time? Well, tiny English history lesson: by the 1640s, England was Protestant, as was the Netherlands. It’s why the Pilgrims fled fearing religious persecution - you’re welcome Massachusetts - and the English Civil War of 1649-1660 brought its own upheavals. The Commonwealth didn’t last long, and when the monarchy was restored, it took less than 30 years for the throne to be contested. And who would take the English throne but the House of Orange: an English princess who had married a Dutch prince.
Ok, back to the spices. It was a well fought-over trade route and it was very expensive to operate and protect. Colonial expansion, which brought with it a substantial tax base, was thought to be one method of creating the wealth needed to hold onto key trade ports. Did you know that the Portuguese didn’t relinquish some of their colonies in Asia until the 1960s and 70s? Goa didn’t become part of India until 1961. Portuguese Timor was invaded by Indonesia in 1975, and didn’t become an independent nation until 2002. Macau was handed back to the Chinese in 1999. A vast majority of South and Southeast Asia was ultimately colonized, with the exception of Thailand.
One of the most famous European powers in Asia was the Dutch East India Company. Outposts and colonies alike were established around the trade route. Natives in China, Vietnam and Cambodia fought off the Dutch in the 17th century. There were strong opinions about Europeans coming in and taking control of the spice trade. Can’t call it a rebellion, since the native people of Southeast Asia and beyond weren’t part of the Dutch republic, but it had that vibe. By 1669, the Dutch East India Company was the richest private company in history. It had a huge merchant fleet of ships, warships also, tens of thousands of employees, a private army, and a reputation on the part of its stockholders for high dividend payments. So even if you were Dutch and wealthy in the 17th century, it meant you probably had spices in your household, but you also had stock in the trade as well.
Famously, British India comes to mind when thinking of imperialism in Asia. But at the beginning, it was actually a competition between the British, Portuguese and French. The French didn’t leave India until the mid 18th century, being defeated by the British, who then went on to stake their claim throughout the Indian sub-continent. With devastating results and impact that still reverberate in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.
The French were licking their wounds in the 1750s and had little reason to stay in Southeast Asia. Christian missionaries stayed, but trade nearly stopped altogether. On the home front, the reigns of Louis XV and XVI respectively were threatened by economic collapse in its colonies, slave revolts in Haiti, and of course, the famous Revolution of 1789. It wasn’t until the Second Empire in the 1850s that France decided to establish colonies in Southeast Asia. France was undergoing a religious revival at the time. With anti-Christian persecutions happening in Vietnam and Cambodia, the French felt justified in their invasive actions.
Danang and Saigon were invaded and occupied by 1858. The French chose to get into a war with the British over the opium trade in China. Vietnam was seen as the gateway into China, so it became strategic and vital. In 1862, the Treaty of Saigon was signed, which ceded three southern provinces of Vietnam over to France. Vietnam effectively became a French protectorate. Cambodia and Laos were soon brought under French colonization. Or “protection” as it was seen at the time.
In these three countries, the French were thought to have brought improved public services and commercial stability, but the standard of living for natives declined and the precolonial social structures eroded away. France benefited from the region’s exports of tin, pepper, coal, cotton, and rice. Economists and historians debate still, if the colonization of Southeast Asia was profitable for France - as colonization of Indonesia by the Dutch clearly was. But it was certainly culturally and politically impactful - especially during the 20th century and the onset of the Vietnam War.
The British would not be outdone by the French - or anyone really - and their colonization of the Indian sub-continent spread out into neighboring areas, such as Burma. Modern-day Myanmar. It was colonized by the British in 1824. It eventually became part of India, merged by the British in 1886.
In fact, there are only seven modern countries still in existence today that were independent and were never colonized in Asia. Afghanistan, China, Iran, Japan, Mongolia, Thailand, and Turkey. However, Afghanistan was a British protectorate before it became its own independent nation. China, of course, had infinite European influence and had to fight for many of its port cities with the Portuguese and French. In Southeast Asia though, only Thailand has remained a completely independent state. It was bordered by the British sphere of influence in the north and south, with French influence to its east.
So how did that happen? How did Thailand, surrounded by colonial powers on all sides, remain independent? Let’s start by learning a bit about the history of Thailand - its successive kingdoms in particular.
The ruling power in Thailand at the time before European arrival was Ayutthaya. They expanded their kingdom through conquest and political marriages. Before the end of the 15th century, Ayutthaya invaded the Khmer Empire three times and sacked Angkor, its capital. This upset the balance of power in the region. The Khmer were a prominent people in Southeast Asia, whose empire declined for a variety of reasons. Sacking Angkor would’ve been a likely victory for Ayutthaya. A less likely victory was Malacca. The Malay peninsula was a big target for Ayutthaya and they attempted to conquer it, but failed. Malacca had deep pocket support from the Chinese Ming dynasty.
Of course, the Portuguese arrived in the region and the Ayutthaya kingdom made quick allies. This beneficial relationship between Thailand and Europe continued into the 1600s. With its military power and strong armies, Ayutthaya was regarded as a great Asian power. Right up there with China and India. It was important to keep overall relations stable and beneficial to all parties. Thailand allowed French Christian missionaries into its lands, which likely eased any religious tensions that would’ve occurred if they had not done so.
Thailand also did not have a variety of resources coveted by Europeans. It had coastal ports and cities, which became economic centers of trade. These ports welcomed all merchants, Arab, Indian, Chinese, European, etc. Thailand also became very adept at striking treaties with European powers, like the Bowring Treaty of 1855 with the British, and the Harris Treaty of 1865 with the Americans. Oh yes, we were there… imperialism was not a solely European venture.
Thailand’s location, geographically, was also to its benefit. It acted as a buffer zone between the French colonies to the east and British ones to the west. Thai rulers were very savvy, and understood that if they mimicked European political systems and policies, they would be more likely to make a favorable impression on Europeans. Preventing colonialism was a topic of great discussion, especially by the mid 1800s. Modernizing the country became a significant effort that helped Thailand become more advanced. Chulalongkorn was one ruler who is most praised for keeping Thailand independent. His political reforms included the abolition of slavery, dividing the country into administrative units, introducing the idea of modern land ownership and taxation, and opening the country to the construction of railways.
While Europeans initially entered Southeast Asia to establish trading posts, they ultimately wanted their trade to flourish and expand. If your trading post is growing due to a higher demand for the supply of goods, you’re going to need greater amounts of food and timber. In order to ensure a reliable supply of food and timber, Europeans began to interact with local communities nearby. Territorial control was an obvious next step. After that, it’s only one small step towards full colonization, which is done in order to stabilize political power. Imposing European culture on colonies is just icing on the cake.
European interference has impacted Southeast Asia in all aspects of life. Not least of which is the increased demand for labor. Whenever a place has an increased demand for laborers, mass immigrations occur. Workers from British India and China flooded the region, which massively changed the demographics. If modern democratic nations, with bureaucracy and courts of law and advanced print media, are colonizing a region, it’s not surprising that would sow the seed of nationalist and independence movements among colonial subjects.
Even the fact that I’ve been referring to the region as Southeast Asia is an outcome of the region undergoing a common core of historical experiences. And that’s the deep dive into a tightly-woven web of a narrative of East meets West - the answer to the trivia question: Which industry was responsible for the European colonization of Southeast Asia? Stay tuned for some spicy recipes that tell this tale in greater detail.
The spice trade is ancient, which means spices have been part of European cuisine for centuries. They were a luxury item, but medieval cooking is varied and yes, Europeans liked it spicy! It was typical to show off your wealth by using a mixture of spices in dishes. It wasn’t common for just one spice to be the star. It was more common to have a compound taste, for example mixing parsley and cloves together, or pairing ginger with pepper.
Spices were also added to sauces. Did you know that Europeans were making almond milk back in the 13th and 14th centuries? It was actually the most common cooking ingredient in the medieval kitchen. A staple item! Adding sour liquids and exotic spices to the almond milk created an aromatic and creamy sauce to be poured over roasted meat, for example.
But since flour was the biggest staple food in Europe (and still is), it’s in the bread baking that spices came in handy. At wedding feasts, some breads were “gilded” with turmeric, making them appear golden. Sometimes berries or raisins were soaked in spiced liquids before they were baked into loaves. The balance of the bland bread dough and spices was a winner. And while some recipes have fallen out of favor, one medieval bread recipe is still a favorite with people today: Gingerbread.
Gingerbread didn’t start out looking like the flat crispy cookies we now associate with winter holidays. It likely started as a moist loaf or soft fluffy round. You could have even made it into a light snack. Just take 4 teaspoons of ground ginger, 1 teaspoon ground cloves, 1 teaspoon black pepper, 2 cups honey, and 1 pound of breadcrumbs. Heat the honey in a pan and bring to a boil. Skim off the top layer that occurs when it boils. Stir the breadcrumbs into the honey. Take away from the heat, and mix the spices in. Transfer onto a baking tray and let the mixture settle to be about a half inch deep. Leave it to cool and harden. You can cut into triangles or squares to serve.
Adding onto that recipe, you can also form the mixture into balls and coat the outsides with sandalwood and cinnamon. This would’ve been a gingerbread that an English nobleman or his daughters would’ve relished at the end of dinner. What would a French nobleman and his daughters have had for dinner? Great question! They may have eaten cinnamon soup alongside parsnip pie with a side of apple muse. All recipes that include spice!
Cinnamon soup is made by cutting cooked chicken into pieces that are sauteed in butter until it browns. You add in chicken broth, ground almonds, cinnamon, ginger, cloves, and salt. Bring it to a boil and then turn down the heat to simmer. Parsnip pie includes boiled parsnips, fried thinly sliced onions, and salt cured lemon cut into slices lining the bottom of a pie crust. Nutmeg and pepper is sprinkled over the top before the top pie crust layer is laid over. Yum!
And apple muse is more of a gritty pudding than anything else. Peeled and cored apples, sliced and boiled, then pressed through a sieve. Add almond milk, as well as honey, breadcrumbs, saffron, sandalwood, and salt. Let it simmer and get more delicious.
As you can hear, spices were integral to European cooking and culture, which meant that the spice trade was an integral part of European culture and economics. And what’s economic is political, as colonized people around the world have experienced. I hope you enjoyed this little tale of sugar and spice and everything nice - but also not nice!